Solar Panel Working System

 Introduction:

In recent years, solar panels have become increasingly popular as a renewable energy source. They convert sunlight into electricity, making them an ideal alternative to traditional power sources. In this blog, we will discuss how solar panels work and the science behind their functioning.

The Science Behind Solar Panels:

The basic functioning of solar panels is based on the photovoltaic effect. When sunlight falls on the surface of a solar panel, the energy from the sunlight is absorbed by the photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made up of silicon, which is a semiconductor material. When sunlight is absorbed, it knocks electrons off the silicon atoms, creating a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons is known as an electric current.

What is the Solar Panel System?

A solar panel system is a system of interconnected assembly (also known as an array) of photovoltaic (PV) solar cells.

The energy produced by the solar panel is measured in volts or watts. It will vary according to the type of system and the solar cell you are using. Each of the array’s solar panels (modules) consists of a group of solar cells packed jointed in a metal frame.

A single solar panel typically consists of 60, 72, or 96 solar cells. Every solar cell includes an inverter to convert the direct current produced into the alternating current electricity used in the home. The placed inverter can be large and centralized.

Working of Solar Panel

Solar panels receive sunlight as a source of energy to produce electricity or heat. A photovoltaic module is usually a connected combination of photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in many applications. Each module is rated under standard test conditions by its DC output power, typically ranging from 100 to 365 watts.

The efficiency of a module given the same rated output, as an 8% efficient 230W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230W module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed 22% capacity and reportedly even exceed 24%.

A single solar module can provide only an inadequate amount of power. Most of the installations include multiple modules. A photovoltaic system includes an array of PV (photovoltaic) modules, an inverter, interconnection wiring, a battery pack for storage, and a solar tracking mechanism optionally.

The most general application of solar panels is solar water heating systems.

Factors Affecting Solar Panel Performance:

Several factors can affect the performance of solar panels. One of the most important factors is the amount of sunlight that the panels receive. The more sunlight the panels receive, the more electricity they can produce.

Other factors that can affect performance include temperature, shading, and the angle and orientation of the panels. It is important to ensure that solar panels are installed in a location where they receive maximum sunlight throughout the day, and are not shaded by trees, buildings or other objects.

Types of Solar Panel

Following are the different types of solar panels classified according to the generation of solar panel:

Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)

Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Poly-SI)

Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

Biohybrid Solar Cell

Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)

Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe)

According to Green Match following are the different types of solar panels made of monocrystalline silicon or polysilicon and are commonly used in traditional environments.

1 Monocrystalline Solar Panels (Mono-SI)

The monocrystalline solar panel is made of monocrystalline silicon is the purest. They are available in the form of an equally dark look and rounded edges. The reason for the high purity of silicon is that this type of solar panel has the highest efficiency of above 20% rate.

The benefits of using monocrystalline solar panels have a higher power output, occupy less space, and last longer. They are also costly compared to other types of solar panels. Another benefit to consider is that they are slightly less affected by high temperatures than polycrystalline panels.

2 Polycrystalline Solar Panels (Poly-SI)

The polycrystalline solar panels have a unique look than other panels. This type of solar panel has squares, and its angles are not cut. The appearance of this panel has a blue and speckled look.

These solar panels are manufactured by melting the raw silicon, which is a quicker and less expensive process compared to monocrystalline panels.

3 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell (A-Si)

These are the different types of solar panels that one uses mainly in the manufacture of a pocket calculator. The amorphous silicon solar panel uses triple-layered technology, which is the most excellent of the thin film variety.

The thickness of this solar sheet is around about 1 micrometer. It is approximately about one-millionth of a meter. With only a 7% efficiency rate, these cells are less efficient than crystalline silicon ones, which have an efficiency rate of circa 18%. The benefit of using this solar panel is that it is available at a low cost.

4 Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

Thin-film solar panels are also known as TFSC. These are made by placing one or more films of PV material, such as silicon, cadmium, and copper, on a substrate. They are easy to produce, and economies of scale make them cheaper than options due to the low content required for their production.

Thin-film solar cells are flexible and less affected by high temperatures. Using these solar cells, opens up plenty of opportunities for alternative applications. The disadvantage of these solar cells is that it takes more space, generally making them unsuitable for residential establishments.

Furthermore, they offer the lowest warranty because their lifespan is shorter than mono- and polycrystalline-type solar panels. It is best to installment where a lot of space is available.

5 Biohybrid Solar Cell

The biohybrid solar cells were founded by an expert team from Vanderbilt University. The concept of this new technology is to take advantage of Photosystem 1 and thus simulate the natural process of photosynthesis.

Many of the materials applied in this cell are related to traditional methods. Combining multiple layers of photosystem 1 makes the transformation from chemical to electrical energy more efficiently. That is 1000 times more effective than the first-generation types of solar panels.

6 Concentrated PV Cell (CVP and HCVP)

Compared to other types of solar panels, such CVP cells have a name that makes them so efficient: curved mirror surfaces, lenses, and sometimes cooling systems are also used to bind the sun’s rays, and thus their efficiency increases.

Concentrated PV cells produce electrical energy as traditional photovoltaic systems do. The efficiency rate of those multi-junction type solar panels is 41%, one of the highest of all photovoltaic systems.

7 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell (CdTe)

In these different types of solar panels, cadmium telluride is used in this photovoltaic technology. That allows the production of solar cells at a meager cost and thus a shorter period (for less than one year).

In all solar energy technology, it requires minimal water for production. The advantage of using these solar cells will keep their carbon footprint as low as possible. The main drawback of using cadmium telluride is its quality of being toxic if ingested or inhaled.

Especially in Europe, as many people are very concerned about using the technology behind this type of solar panel, this is one of the biggest hurdles to overcome.

Conclusion:

Solar panel technology has come a long way in recent years, making it an increasingly popular source of renewable energy. Understanding how solar panels work and the factors that affect their performance can help consumers make informed decisions about installing solar panel systems. With the right installation and maintenance, solar panels can provide a reliable and sustainable source of electricity for homes and businesses alike.

This information is for knowledge only, not to hurt anyone's feelings.

Windmill Working System.

 1. Introduction

The wind energy is an environment-friendly and efficient source of renewable energy. The kinetic energy of the wind can be used to do work. This energy is harnessed by windmill in the past to do mechanical work. This is used for water lifting pump and generating electricity. To generate the electricity, the rotary motion of, the windmill is used to turn the turbine of the electric generator. The output of single windmill is quite small and cannot be used for commercial purposes. Therefore, a number of windmills are erected over a large area, which is known as wind energy farm. The each and every windmill is coupled together to get a electricity for commercial purposes. The wind speed should be higher than 15 Km/hr.

2. Components of a Windmill Working System

2.1 Rotor Blades - 

The blades are the most recognizable part of a windmill. They are usually made of fiberglass or wood and are designed to be aerodynamically efficient to capture the maximum amount of wind energy.

2.2 Rotor Hub - 

The rotor hub is the central part of the windmill where the blades are attached. It is connected to the gearbox that converts the rotational motion of the rotor into electricity.

2.3 Gearbox - 

The gearbox is a complex mechanical device that increases the rotational speed of the rotor and converts it into electricity.

2.4 Generator - 

The generator is responsible for converting the mechanical energy from the gearbox into electrical energy. It consists of a rotor and a stator, with the rotor rotating inside the stator.

2.5 Tower - 

The tower is the tall structure that supports the entire windmill. It is usually made of steel or concrete and is designed to withstand high winds and extreme weather conditions.

3. Materials and methods

3.1 Windmill using multi generator

The two electromagnetic induction generator are connected in both end of the shaft through coupling. The windmill rotor transmit the power to the two generator through straight bevel gear. The power output of multi- generator used windmill will be two times of single generator used windmill.

3.2 Principle of the methods

The windmill is works on the principle of generating power through the force of the nature (air). The blades of windmill are rotated due to the force of wind strikes them. The rotating blades are transmitting the power to the generator through the shaft and gear box and generate the electricity.

3.3 Construction of the methods

For Horizontal blade wind turbine, the main parts are follows below:

• Blades and rotor,

• Electromagnetic Induction Generator

• Gears (straight bevel gear mechanism),

• Shaft.

The blades are attached with rotor by using bolt and nut. The rotor connected with gear through shaft and balance by bearing. The gear box consists of driver and driven gear. The driven gear teeth are mesh with driver gear. The one end of the low speed shaft is connected with driver gear and other end is connected with rotor turbine of the windmill. The long high speed shaft is connected at the center of the driven gear. The both end of the shaft is connected with two same or different generator through coupling.

The blade is attached with rotor. The rotor connected with straight bevel gear through shaft. The gear box consists of driver and driven gear. The one end of the low speed shaft is connected with driver gear and other end is connected with rotor turbine of the windmill. The long high speed shaft is connected at the center of the driven gear. The both end of the shaft is connected with two same or different generator through coupling.

3.4 Poles of generator

The one of the Generator is rotated at clockwise and other one is rotated at anticlockwise. The anticlockwise rotating Generator is not giving the current. So, we change the poles inside the motor. The poles of two motor is parallel and connected with driven gear through long shaft.

3.5 Working of the Method

The rotor is rotated due to the force of wind strikes the blades of windmill. The rotating blades are transmitting the power to the gear box (driver gear) through rotor from the shaft. In gear box, the straight bevel gear mechanism is used which consist of driver and driven gears. The driver gear is transmitting power to the driven gear. Finally, the gear box is transmitting power to the two Generator through shaft in driven gear. The Generator shaft is rotated and same torque is produced. Because, torque is product of force and area so we balance the force and area the torque will be same. The Generator generates current.

4. Wind power Equation

The Wind power Equation is a mathematical formula that is used to calculate the amount of power that can be extracted from the wind. It takes into account several variables, including the density of the air, the wind speed, and the size of the rotor blades. The equation is as follows:

Power = 0.5 x Density x Area x Velocity^3

where:

• Power is the amount of power that can be extracted from the wind (in watts)

• Density is the density of the air (in kg/m^3)

• Area is the area swept by the rotor blades (in m^2)

• Velocity is the wind speed (in m/s)

4.1 Variables in the Wind power Equation

• 4.1.1 Density -

• The density of the air is an important factor in the Win dpower Equation because it affects how much air the rotor blades can capture. Air density decreases as altitude increases and temperature rises, so wind turbines at higher altitudes or colder temperatures can produce more power.

• 4.1.2 Area -

• The area swept by the rotor blades is also a critical factor in the Wind power Equation. Larger blades can capture more wind energy, but they also require a stronger tower and foundation to support the extra weight.

• 4.1.3 Velocity -

• Wind speed is the most significant factor in the Wind power Equation, as it has the most significant impact on power production. As the wind speed increases, the power produced by the turbine increases exponentially. However, turbines are designed to operate within a specific wind speed range to prevent damage.

This information is for knowledge only, not to hurt anyone's feelings.

How Solar Panels are Made

 Introduction

Solar panels are becoming increasingly popular as a source of renewable energy. They work by converting sunlight into electricity through the use of photovoltaic cells. But have you ever wondered how these panels are made? In this blog post, we'll explore the process of making solar panels from start to finish.

Step 1: Polysilicon Production

The first step in making solar panels is the production of polysilicon, which is the raw material used to make the photovoltaic cells. Polysilicon is made by heating high-purity silicon in a vacuum furnace until it melts. The molten silicon is then cast into cylindrical ingots, which are cut into thin wafers.

In addition to the traditional method of producing polysilicon by heating high-purity silicon, there are also newer methods such as the fluidized bed reactor (FBR) process and the upgraded metallurgical-grade (UMG) silicon process. These newer methods have the potential to reduce the cost of polysilicon production and increase the efficiency of solar panels.

Polysilicon is the most expensive component of solar panels, accounting for up to 60% of the cost. As a result, reducing the cost of polysilicon production is a major focus of research and development in the solar industry.

One way to reduce the cost of polysilicon production is to use lower-quality silicon feedstocks, such as metallurgical-grade silicon, instead of high-purity silicon. This approach can reduce the cost of polysilicon production by up to 80%.

Another method for reducing the cost of polysilicon production is to improve the efficiency of the production process. This can be achieved through the use of advanced technologies, such as fluidized bed reactors and upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon processes.

The process of producing polysilicon can also have environmental impacts. For example, the traditional process of producing polysilicon requires large amounts of energy, which can result in greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the waste products from the production process can be hazardous to the environment. As a result, many companies are working to develop more sustainable methods of producing polysilicon, such as using renewable energy sources and recycling waste materials.

Step 2: Cell Production

The next step is the production of the photovoltaic cells. This is done by slicing the polysilicon wafers into thin sheets using a diamond saw. These sheets are then coated with a phosphorous solution to create a positive electrical charge on one side of the cell and a negative charge on the other side.

After the cells are coated with the phosphorous solution, they undergo a firing process in a furnace to activate the positive charge on one side of the cell. The cells are then treated with an anti-reflective coating to reduce the amount of sunlight that is reflected back, increasing the amount that is absorbed and converted into electricity.

There are several different types of solar cells, including monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film. Each type of cell has its own unique production process.

Monocrystalline cells are made from a single crystal of silicon, which is grown from a seed crystal. This process is known as the Czochralski method. The resulting cells are highly efficient, but also the most expensive to produce.

Polycrystalline cells are made from multiple crystals of silicon, which are melted and then re-solidified. This process is less expensive than the Czochralski method, but the resulting cells are slightly less efficient.

Thin-film cells are made by depositing a thin layer of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass or metal. This process is less expensive than the other methods, and the resulting cells are lighter and more flexible, but also less efficient.

Regardless of the type of cell being produced, the process begins with the preparation of the silicon wafer. This involves cleaning the wafer to remove any impurities and then applying a layer of phosphorous to one side of the wafer.

After the cells are coated with the phosphorous solution, they undergo a firing process in a furnace to activate the positive charge on one side of the cell. The cells are then treated with an anti-reflective coating to reduce the amount of sunlight that is reflected back, increasing the amount that is absorbed and converted into electricity.

The efficiency of solar cells is an important consideration, as it determines the amount of electricity that can be generated from a given area of solar panels. Improvements in cell efficiency are a key area of research and development in the solar industry.

Step 3: Module Assembly

The cells are then assembled into modules, which are the rectangular panels that you see on rooftops and in fields. The cells are sandwiched between two layers of glass, with a plastic or metal frame around the edges. The cells are wired together to create a circuit, and a junction box is added to the back of the panel to allow for connection to the electrical grid.

After the solar cells have been produced, they are assembled into modules, which are the individual units that make up a solar panel. The process of module assembly can vary depending on the type of panel being produced.

For traditional solar panels, the cells are typically arranged in a grid-like pattern and then connected together using metal conductors. The cells are then sandwiched between a layer of tempered glass on the front and a layer of polymer on the back to protect them from the elements.

For thin-film solar panels, the process of module assembly is different. Instead of using individual cells, the thin-film material is deposited onto a substrate, such as glass or metal, to create a single continuous layer. This layer is then cut into individual modules, which can be assembled into a solar panel.

Once the modules have been assembled, they undergo a series of quality control tests to ensure that they are functioning properly. These tests can include visual inspection, electrical performance testing, and environmental testing.

In addition, many solar panels are designed to be compatible with a range of mounting systems, which can be used to attach the panels to rooftops, poles, or other structures. The mounting system is an important consideration when installing solar panels, as it can affect the efficiency and durability of the system.

Overall, the process of module assembly is a critical step in the production of solar panels, as it determines the durability, efficiency, and performance of the final product. Advances in module assembly technology are helping to make solar panels more affordable and accessible to a wider range of consumers.

Step 4: Testing

Solar panels undergo several different types of testing, including visual inspection, electrical performance testing, and environmental testing. Environmental testing involves exposing the panels to extreme temperatures, humidity, and UV radiation to simulate the effects of long-term exposure to the elements. Panels that fail the testing process are either repaired or recycled.

Once the solar panels have been assembled, they undergo a series of tests to ensure that they are functioning properly and meet the required performance standards. The testing process can include both mechanical and electrical tests.

Mechanical testing involves subjecting the solar panels to various stresses, such as high winds, extreme temperatures, and exposure to moisture, to ensure that they are durable and can withstand a range of environmental conditions. The panels are also tested for their ability to resist impact and vibration, which can help prevent damage during shipping and installation.

Electrical testing involves measuring the electrical output of the solar panels to ensure that they are generating the expected amount of power. This testing can include measuring the voltage, current, and power output of the panels under various conditions, such as different levels of sunlight and temperature.

In addition, solar panels may be tested for their performance over time, as exposure to sunlight and other environmental factors can cause gradual degradation of the materials. This testing can help identify any potential issues with the panels before they become major problems.

Overall, the testing process is an important part of the solar panel production process, as it helps ensure that the panels are safe, reliable, and meet the required performance standards. Advances in testing technology are helping to make solar panels more efficient and durable, and are contributing to the growth of the solar industry around the world.

Step 5: Installation

The installation of solar panels requires careful planning to ensure that they are oriented in the most efficient direction to capture the most sunlight. Panels that are mounted on rooftops may also require reinforcement to support the weight of the panels. In addition, the installation process must comply with local building codes and regulations.

Conclusion

The process of making solar panels is complex, but it all starts with the production of polysilicon and ends with the installation of the panels. While the upfront cost of installing solar panels can be high, the long-term benefits in terms of energy savings and reduced carbon emissions are well worth it. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more efficient and cost-effective solar panels in the future.

This information is for knowledge only, not to hurt anyone's feelings.

Laser & Optical Fiber

INTRODUCTION:

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser

technology started with Albert Einstein in 1917, he has given theoretical basis for the

development of Laser. The technology further evolved in 1960 when the very first laser

called Ruby Laser was built at Hughes Research Laboratoriesby T.H. Mainmann.

CHARACTERISTIC OF LASER RADIATION:

The laser beam has the properties given below which distinguish it from an ordinary beam of

light. Those are

1. Highly directional

2. Highly monochromatic

3. Highly intense

4. Highly coherence

1. Highly directional:

A conventional light source emits light in all directions. On the other hand, Laser

emits light only in one direction. The width of Laser beam is extremely narrow and hence a

laser beam can travel to long distances without spreading.

The directionality of laser beam is expressedin terms of divergence

Δ𝜃 =

𝑟2 − 𝑟1

𝑑2 − 𝑑1

Where r1and r2are the radii of laser beam spots at distances of d1 and d2 respectively from

laser source.

2. Highly monochromatic:

A monochromatic source is a single frequency or single wavelength source of light.

The laser light is more monochromatic than that of a convectional light source. This may be

due to the stimulated characteristic of laser light. The band width of convectional

monochromatic light source is 1000A0. But the band width of ordinary light source is 10 A0.

For high sensitive laser source is 10-8 A0.

3. Highly intense:

Laser light is highly intense than the conventional light. A one milli-Watt He-Ne laser

is highly intense than the sun intensity. This is because of coherence and directionality of

laser. Suppose when two photons each of amplitude ‘A’ are in phase with other, then young’s

principle of superposition, the resultant amplitude of two photons is 2A and the intensity is

4a2. Since in laser many numbers of photons are in phase with each other, the amplitude of

the resulting wave becomes ‘nA’ and hence the intensity of laser is proportional to n2A2. So

1mw He-Ne laser is highly intense than the sun.

4. Highly coherence:

A predictable correlation of the amplitude and phase at any one point with other point

is called coherence.In case of conventional light, the property of coherence exhibits between

a source and its virtual source where as in case of laser the property coherence exists between

any two sources of same phase.

There are two types of coherence

i) Temporal coherence

ii) Spatial coherence.

    Temporal coherence (or longitudinal coherence):

    The predictable correlation of amplitude and phase at one point on the wave train w .r.

    t another point on the same wave train, then the wave is said to be temporal coherence.

    Spatial coherence (or transverse coherence):

    The predictable correlation of amplitude and phase

    at one point on the wave train w. r .t another point on a

    second wave, then the waves are said to be spatial

    coherence (or transverse coherence).Two waves are said to

    be coherent when the waves must have same phase & amplitude.

This information is for knowledge only, not to hurt anyone's feelings.

OPTICAL FIBER IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

OPTICAL FIBER IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The most important application of optical fibers occurs in the field of communication.

Fiber optic communication systems comprise of the following units.

Information signal source:

 The information signal to be transmitted may be voice, video or computer data (analog signals).

 In order to communicate through optical fiber, the analog signals are converted into electrical signals.( by Analog to Digital converter)

 The converted electrical signals are passed through the transmitter. Transmitter:

 The transmitter is a modulator device used to receive electrical input signal, and then modulate it into digital pulses for propagation into an optical fiber.

 The modulator consists of a driver and a light source as shown in fig.

 The driver receives the electrical signals and then converts into the digital pulses.

 These digital pulses are converted into optical signals after passing through a light source, generally either light emitting diodes (LED’s) or a semi conductor laser is used as light source.

 The optical signals are then focused into the optical fiber as shown in fig.

Optical Fiber (or) Transmission medium:

 The optical fiber is used as transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver.

 The optical signals are then fed into an optical fiber cable where they are transmitted over long distances using the principle of total internal reflection.

Receiver:

 The receiver is a demodulator device used to receive the optical signals from the optical fiber and then convert into electrical signals.

 The demodulator consists of a photodetector, an amplifier and a signal restorer.

 The optical signals which are emerging from the optical fiber are received by photo

Detector.

 The photodetector converts the optical signals into electrical signals.

 The electrical signals are then amplified by the amplifier and the amplified electrical signals are converted into digital form.

 The amplified electrical signals are fed to a signal restorer where the original voice is recovered.

Advantages of Optical Fibers in communication system:

 High data transmission rates and bandwidth.

 Low losses.

 Small cable size and weight.

 Immunity to EM radiations.

 Safety due to lack of sparks.

 Data security.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS:

(1) Due to high band-width, light can transmit at a higher rate up to 1014 to 1015 Hz. Than radio or micro-frequencies.

(2) Long distance signal transmission.

(3) They are used for exchange of information in cable television, space vehicles, sub-marines

(4) Optical fibers are used in industry in security alarm systems, process control & industrial automation.

(5) They are used in pressure sensors in biomedical & engine control applications.

This information is for knowledge only, not to hurt anyone's feelings.